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Some Pointers for Writing Papers in Literature Courses

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精選事件年表

Selective Chronology of Events

羅馬官員及其職責
Roman Officials and their Duties

執政官

Consul

對抗專制的守護者、擔任舊時國王的管理責任 – 軍事戰役的指揮、公眾金融的管理，還有立法的控制 – 通常由元老院在每年年初，從貴族階層中推派兩人為執政官，以一年輪流制為準則。在緊急的時刻，其中一人會被任命為權力無上限（如同帝權）的『獨裁官』，並且不需對元老院和人民解釋負責。

As a safeguard against despotism, the former administrative duties of the king-the conduct of military campaigns, the management of public finance, and the control of legislation-were distributed at the beginning of each year between two men, usually elected by the Senate from the patrician class, who served on an annual, rotating basis. In time of emergency, one of the consuls might be named "Dictator" with unlimited powers (known as "imperium") and no accountability either to the Senate or the People.

總督

Proconsul

在執政權任期內，總督是羅馬以外治理行省的最高權力。

In the year following his term of consulship, the proconsul held imperial authority outside of Rome in whichever province he was assigned to govern.

保民官

Tribunus

為了反制平衡貴族的執政權力，平民設置了保民官的職位。保民官是由公民大會從氏族中選舉，對抗這些濫權的元老和執政官以保護人民。保民官享有極崇高的地位，個人上高於法律。

To counter-balance the consular powers of the Patricians, the Plebians created the office of tribune, elected by the popular assembly from among the tribes to protect the people from perceived abuses of authority by the Senate and the consuls. Tribunes enjoyed sancrosanct status and were personally above the law.

執法官

Praetor

執行正義和仲裁糾紛的當地官員；派任在羅馬境內的稱為市區執法官，羅馬外的稱為外地執法官。

The local official responsible for administering justice and arbitrating disputes was called praetor urbanus when he was assigned in Rome and praetor peregrinus when outside of Rome.

監察官

Censor

高階級的職位，只交託給曾擔任過執政官的人，其監察職責包括跟人口和稅賦管理有關的金融與會計。

An office of high rank, entrusted only to men who had previously served as consuls, the censorship encompassed financial and accounting responsibilities related to taxation and population management.

財務官

Quaestor

財務官從事財政部門的服務。

The quaestor served in the ministry of finance.

營造官

Aedile

營造官負責本地的治安守衛、公共市場的監督、劇院表演的製作，和神殿的照料與維修。

The curial aedile was responsible for local police protection, the oversight of public markets, the production of theatrical performances, and for the care and upkeep of the temples.

行政官 

Magistrate

『行政官』的頭銜通常指服務一年以上，從執政官到財務官的公共官員。行政官職通常被認為是進入元老院的必要先決條件。

The title of "magistrate" referred generally to any public official, who served on an annual basis, from the consul all the way down to the position of quaestor. The magistracy was usually considered a necessary precondition for entry into the Roman Senate.

羅馬社會的階級制度 

Classifications of Roman Society

元老院

Senatus

羅馬的立法組織，由社會中的最高階層份子組成，其職責有通過法令、選出執政官，並且監督公共管理的營運。通常元老院的人數上限為300名，但在不同的時期，獨裁官可採用個人的擁護者，將人數增加至600名。

The legislative body, composed of the highest ranking members of Roman society, passed laws, elected consuls, and oversaw the operations of public administration. Usually the Senate was limited to 300 members, but at various times, dictators were able to swell the numbers up to 600 with their personal supporters.

氏族 

Tribus

為了稅賦與公共管理的目的，羅馬民眾依居住地區分為世襲的氏族；城市內分成4個氏族，在城市外圍地區則分成17個。

The Roman populace was divided, for the purpose of taxation and public administration, into hereditary tribus or tribes according to residential district, 4 tribes being drawn from locations within the city, 17 from the outlying areas.

百人大會 

Comitia Centuriata

百人大會原針對軍事目的，在不同的五個階級中，將羅馬民眾組織成百名戰士一隊（稱做百人隊）的團體，總數為193隊：18隊百人騎兵隊、80隊重裝步兵團、90隊輕裝步兵團、4隊工匠跟樂師、和1隊無產民兵團。當半數47到60歲男性組成的百人隊在後方防守城市時，另一半由46歲以下男性組成的百人隊則在外地戰鬥。

The Assembly of the Centuries organized the Roman populace for military purposes into groups of 100 fighting-men (called "centuriae") in each of 5 different categories (called "classes") for a total of 193 centuries altogether: 18 equestrian centuries, 80 heavy infantry, 90 light infantry, 4 artisans and musicians, and 1 of unpropertied soldiers. Half of the centuries consisted of men up to the age of 46 who fought in the field while the other half was composed of men between 47 and 60 who remained behind to defend the City.

貴族

Patrician

舊時的羅馬世家，大部分是那些祖先在過去曾經擔任過執政官身份的人。元老院中的成員最後多半成為貴族。

The established nobility consisted of a select number of old Roman families, most of whose ancestors had held consular authority in former times. The majority of Senators continued to be Patricians.

公民

Plebeian

任何非貴族階級的成員，包括許多新近成為貴族、富人、具影響力的人，都被視為平民。

Anyone who was not a member of the Patrician class, including many of the recent nobility, the wealthy and the influential, was considered to be a commoner.

自由民

Freeman

任何解除奴隸身份、可獲准參與公眾生活的個人或家庭。

Any person who had been freed from slavery or whose family had been freed from slavery was permitted to participate in public life.