2.1.1. Taldorini (Shellducks and allies)

• Somewhere between true geese and ducks
• Long necks and legs
• Some are sexually dimorphic
• Old World ducks

2.1.2. Cairnini (perching ducks)

• Muscovy, mandarins, wood ducks etc.
• Surface feeders
• Nest in holes in trees

2.1.3. Anatini (dabblers)

• Mallards, teal, shovelers, pintails and many others
• Dabble in shallow water for food
• Often upend when feeding

2.1.4. Aythyini (pochards and allies)

• Found worldwide
• All freshwater, except scaup
• Bodies are short and rounded

2.1.5. Mergini

• Mergansers, scoters, goldeneye Inhabit fresh and seawater
• Typically hole nesters
• Eat shellfish and crustaceans
• Mergansers have pointed beaks with toothlike projections

2.1.6. Somateriini (eiders)

• Open sea and coastal waters
• Eider down used to line nests
• Males have conspicuous plumage during breeding season

2.1.7. Oxyurini (stiff tailed ducks)

• Ruddy ducks
• Stiff tail used as a rudder
• Large feet, difficulty walking on land
• Nest on floating platforms

2.1.8. Merganettini (torrent ducks)

• Three species
• Western South America
• Fast flowing rivers
• Swims and dives in rapids
• Sexually dimorphic

2.1.9. Cygnini (swans)

• Mute, trumpeter, tundra, whistling swans
• Longlived
• Sexually monomorphic
• Pair for life

2.1.10. Anserini (geese)

• Canada, brant, snow geese, others
• Adapted for living on land
• Long centrally placed legs
• Long necks, honking calls
• Social nature
• Feed primarily by grazing
• Good swimmers

2.1.11. Dendrocygnini (whistling ducks)

• Tropical waterfowl
• Tree ducks
• Live and nest in or near trees
• Longer legs and more upright stance than other groups of ducks
• Gregarious, pair for life

2.5.1. Quarantine

• Start collection with juvenile birds reared on fresh, uncontaminated pasture
• Physical exams, treat with anthelmintics, bloodwork, serology for M. avium
• Minimum six week quarantine

2.5.2. Pinioning vs. fully enclosed caging

Amputation of the distal phalanx of one wing Prevents primary feather development Carried out at 2-3 days of age

2.6.1. Commercially prepared diets

• Starter (19-22% protein) for first 2-3 weeks of life
• Grower (12-17% protein) up to 4-6 months of age
• Breeder (17-18% protein) for the period prior to and running throughout laying
• Maintenance (up to 14% protein) for general nonbreeding use
• Game bird, trout, sea duck chow
• Avoid medicated poultry feed!
• Supplement with greens, grit, and oyster shell especially in young birds

2.6.2. Nutritional diseases

2.8.1. Duck plague - duck viral enteritis (DVE)

• Herpesvirus
• Variation in susceptibility and mortality
• Shed through fecal/oral discharge
• Most often seen in nonmigratory waterfowl
• Acute (sudden death), hemorrhagic, massive outbreaks
• MLV vaccine available for domestic ducks
• Differential diagnosis DVH, Erysipelas
• REPORTABLE

2.8.2. Duck viral hepatitis - picornavirus

• Picorna virus
• Primarily in Pekin ducklings - rapid onset of 100% mortality
• Lethargy, CNS signs, death
• Adult mallards as transport hosts
• Muscovy are resistant
• Vaccination of breeding females

2.8.3. Goose viral hepatitis

• Parvovirus
• Not yet known in US
• Ataxia, diarrhea, coryza
• Goslings < 30 days of age
• Diagnosed with virus isolation
• Vaccinate breeding birds

2.8.4. Avian influenza (fowl plague)

• Orthomyxovirus
• Domestic turkeys and ducks at risk
• Migratory waterfowl may be the viral source (fecal-oral)
• Mortality low in waterfowl
• Conflicts between Poultry industry and waterbird habitat projects

2.8.5. Newcastles disease - paramyxovirus 1

• Double crested cormorants
• Mostly nestlings and subadults affected
• Highly contagious
• Shed in feces
• CNS signs
• REPORTABLE

2.8.6. Poxvirus

Common Murre with pox

• Avipoxvirus group
• Songbirds, gamebirds, marine birds susceptible
• Mosquitoes are common vectors
• Wartlike nodules on featherless areas of the body
• Emerging disease - reason unclear

2.8.7. Reticuloendotheliosis

• Avian type C retrovirus
• Duck infectious anemia
• Splenic necrosis
• Infection with REV renders ducks partially resistant to Plasmodium infection

2.8.8. Adenoviruses

• Upper respiratory disease with tracheitis
• Seen in domestic goslings
• Basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies

2.9.1. Avian cholera - Pasteurella multocida

• Many taxa of birds affected varying susceptibility - waterfowl and coots
• Environmental contamination with the organism
• Ingestion most common route of infection
• CNS, GI signs, Acute death, hemorrhagic
• Control with early detection, carcass collection and incineration, habitat management
• Concerns raised about biological costs
• Four major geographic foci - CA, OR, TX, NE
• 2004 outbreaks in ruddy ducks in CA and cormorants in South Africa.

2.9.2. Riemerella anatipestifer

• Iinfectious serositis, fibrinous air sacculitis, pericarditis
• Septicemic disease of young domestic ducklings
• Also seen in young swans and geese in the wild
• GI, respiratory, CNS signs
• Differential diagnosis Salmonella, colisepticemia, Newcastle?

2.9.3. Botulism (limberneck)

Botulism in a gadwall

• Western duck sickness, alakali poisoning
• Paralytic, often fatal
• C. botulinum toxin, type C in waterfowl, Type E in loons and gulls
• One of most important diseases of migratory birds
• Summer/fall incidence
• Carcass-maggot cycle
• Affects peripheral nerves
• Can sometimes recover with supportive treatment
• ELISA test for type C toxin now available for diagnosis from the National Wildlife Health Center http://www.nwhc.usgs.gov/

2.9.4. Avian tuberculosis - Mycobacterium avium

M. avium infection in the liver of a bird

• Turkeys, raptors > waterfowl
• Seen in species living near sparrows, starlings (reservoirs), and in scavengers
• Fecal transmission
• Chronic disease
• Zoonotic potential in immunocompromised humans

2.10.1. Aspergillosis - A. fumigatus

• Opportunistic organism
• Sensitive species: swans, eider ducks, snow geese, seabirds, etc.
• Acquire through inhalation of spores
• Brooder pneumonia in chicks
• Emaciation, dyspnea, voice change, chronic anemia
• Difficult to diagnose in early stages
• Combination antifungal rx

Aspergillus from a Murre

2.10.2. Other - mycotoxins (aflatoxins), algal toxins

2.11.1. Hematozoans

• Plasmodium spp.
• Hemoproteus spp.
• Leukocytozoon spp.

2.11.2. Other protozoans

• Coccidia
  • Infection of kidneys is common
  • Young birds
• Cryptosporidium
  • Replicate in GI and respiratory tracts
  • Domestic and wild ducks and geese
• Sarcocystis
  • Rice grainlike macroscopic cysts in muscle
  • Does not cause obvious morbidity or mortality

Coccidian parasites found in waterfowl feces

2.11.3. Ectoparasites

Airsac mites (from fowl) Leeches - external and nasal "Wet feather" from feather shaft mites (Cytodites) or feather lice (Holomen spp.) Myiasis Leeches can attach within oropharynx

2.11.4. Trematodes

Mollusk intermediate hosts Limited host specificity Hemorrhagic enteritis or hepatic damage/fibrosis Can occur in pancreatic and bile ducts of waterfowl

2.11.5. Cestodes

Little known pathology unless coupled with other debilitating conditions

2.11.6. Nematodes

Gapeworm Cyathostoma bronchialis primarily young geese Adults located in trachea Cause inflammatory response leading to dyspnea
Proventricular worms Echinuris (Acuaria daphnia intermediate host), Tetrameres, Eustrongylides, Porrocaecum Burrow into mucosa and submucosa Can cause obstructions
Gizzard worm - Ventricular worms Amidostomum anseris and Epimidiostomum primarily geese Can result in erosion of the ventricular lining

2.11.7. Acanthocephalans

Thorny headed worms Attach deeply or through intestinal wall Intermediate host Severe granulomatous hemorrhagic enteritis Eiders, scoters

2.12.1. Gout

• Articular or visceral
• Uric acid crystals precipitate in the kidneys
• Can lead to postrenal obstruction
• Rapid and severe rise in uric acid levels
• Precipitation on visceral surfaces, joints
• Hyperkalemia leading to cardiac arrest

Visceral gout in a bird

2.12.2. Capture myopathy

• Caused by improper handling or stress that causes overexertion
• Striated muscle damage
• Warm temps are a risk factor
• Light colored muscles on necropsy exam

2.12.3. Frostbite

• Dry gangrene of extremities
• Tropical and neotropical species are more susceptible
• Can develop secondary septicemia or bacterial endocarditis

2.12.4. Amyloidosis

• Commonly seen in Anseriformes, gulls and shorebirds
• Deposition of amyloid A in various organs
• Degradation product of acute phase, reactive protein
• Seen with chronic infections
• Can lead to severe hypoalbuminemia

2.12.5. Environmental contaminants

• Petroleum
• Heavy metals
  • Lead, Mercury
  • Arsenic, cadmium, selenium
• Pesticides
  • Organophosphates, organochlorines etc.
• PCBs, dioxins
• External effects of oil on waterfowl
  • Skin, ocular burns
  • Feather contamination leading to Lloss of waterproofing, loss of buoyancy and the inability to fly
• Internal effects of oil on waterfowl
  • Gastrointestinal
  • Respiratory
  • Neurologic
  • Hematologic
  • Reproductive
  • Immune system

2.12.6. Foreign body ingestion and entanglement

• Fishing gear : lead sinkers, jigs, fish hooks, fishing line
• Plastic trash: six pack rings, cigarette lighters, balloons

2.12.7. Trauma

• predation
• fishing line and hooks
• male aggression
• hit by vehicles
• gunshot)

2.12.8. Bumblefoot

Seen in captive situations with improper flooring surfaces or perches

Lesions become infected, usually with Staph sp.

Correct predisposing factors, use proper antibiotics, debridement of lesions and topical meds

3.1.1. Family Cathartidae (New World vultures)

Do not have a grasping foot

Small unfeathered head and hooked bill

Weak talons

Regurgitate as a defensive action

Acute sense of smell

3.1.2. Family Accipitridae (Kites, Hawks, Eagles) Accipiters

Goshawks, Coopers and sharp shinned hawks

Woodland birds

Prey on smaller birds

Short rounded wings with long tails

Highly stressed

3.1.3. Family Accipitridae - Buteos

• Red tail, red shouldered, broadwinged hawks
• Soaring hawks with broad tails and rounded wings
• Feed on small mammal species

3.1.4. Family Accipitridae - Harriers

Marsh hawk (aka Northern harrier)

Long pointed wings, fly close to ground with wings upraised

Long legs

Eat small mammals, frogs

Hover over wetlands and open fields

3.1.5. Family Accipitridae - Kites

Mississippi, swallow tailed, black shouldered, others

Eat insects, mice, lizards, frogs

Eat and drink while in flight

Found in open woodlands and swamps, rangelands

3.1.6. Family Accipitridae - Eagles

• Bald, Golden Large birds
• Goldens feed on medium sized mammals, snakes, birds, carrion
• Balds feed on fish, carcasses
• Large broad wings
• Powerful feet, beaks

3.1.7. Family Pandionidae - Osprey

Fish eaters

Platform nesters near fresh or salt water

Hover over water, dive

Highly stressed in captivity

Fishing line and hook injuries, mercury toxicity

3.1.8. Family Falconidae - Falcons, Caracaras

Kestrel, merlin, peregrine, gyrfalcon

Long wings, bent back at wrist

Catch prey by climbing high and stooping down at high speeds

Prone to bumblefoot

3.2.1. Order Strigiformes Tytonidae

• Barn owls
• Roost and nest in dark cavities in old buildings, cliffs, trees
• Common in west, uncommon in eastern US

3.2.2. Order Strigiformes Strigidae

Great horned, barred, screech, saw whet, snowy, great grey, boreal

3.4.1. Toxicity

3.4.1.1. Lead

Most frequently seen in eagles From ingesting lead in prey Clinical signs include weakness, inability to fly, neurologic signs, emaciation

3.4.1.3. Pesticides

Organophosphates, carbamates Cholinesterase inhibitors Raptors are victims of secondary poisoning through their prey Convulsions, paralysis, miosis, dyspnea Birds that die rapidly may be found with vegetation clenched in talons Diagnosis through evidence of ChE inhibition in the brain and identification of pesticide residue in GI contents

3.5.1. Viral diseases

• Poxvirus - especially eagles
• Herpesvirus - Owl herpes, falcon herpes, eagle herpes
  • Transmitted through feeding on infected prey
  • Carrier status
  • Depression, sudden mortality
  • Virus isolation, intranuclear IB in liver, spleen, bone marrow
• Adenovirus - from avian derived food
  • Melena, anemia
  • High mortality in kestrels with hemorrhagic enteritis
  • Two types of intranuclear IB
• Paramyxovirus
  • Low to moderate susceptibility
  • Have seen anorexia, torticollis, and sudden death in owls
  • May show long term fecal viral shedding
  • Nonpurulent encephalitis
• West Nile Virus - Raptors moderately susceptible

3.5.2. Bacterial diseases

• Bumblefoot/pododermititis
  • Falcons especially
  • Initial injury, inappropriate perching surfaces
  • Plantar surface of metatarsal pad
  • Staph aureus, others
  • Antibiotics, bandaging, surgery, correct predisposing conditions
• Avian TB - Widespread problem in raptors, GI form predominant
• Chlamydiosis - chronic form seen in raptors

3.5.3. Fungal diseases

Candida - oropharyngeal mucous membranes and esophagus Aspergillus Common, often fatal Acute and chronic forms Northern species more susceptible

3.5.4. Parasitic diseases

3.5.4.1. Protozoa

Trichomonas - frounce Flagellated organism in mucosa of oropharynx, esophagus and crop, can be generalized Common in pigeons and doves which are then consumed by raptors Falcons most susceptible

• Plasmodium
• Haemoproteus
• Leukocytozoon

3.5.4.2. Liver/intestinal trematodes

Small intestine, liver Diarrhea, weakness Eggs shed intermittently Treat with praziquantel

3.5.4.3. Cestodes

Only rarely cause clinical disease Treat with praziquantel

3.5.4.4. Nematodes

• Ascarids
• Capillaria
  • Very common in raptors
  • Oropharynx, esophagus, intestinal tract
  • Earthworms play a role in transmission
  • Can become infected by ingestion of infected prey
• Syngamus
  • Adult worms live in trachea
  • Ingestion of transport hosts (earthworms, snails)
  • Eggs are coughed up and excreted in feces
  • Upper airway obstruction, sneezing, headshaking
• Seratospiculum
• Mites, lice, Hippoboscid flies

4.1.1. Texts and Articles