L1 = {zot(1)}
L2 = {zot(1), zot(2)}
L3 = {zot(1), zot(2), zot(3)}
and so on through
L1000 = {zot(1), …, zot(1000)}

2.以語言習得定義以下所列：肯定的證據、否定的證據、母性語言（或兒語，媽媽語）。孩童使用何者以習得語言？有何證據證明其中有些因素對語言習得未有重要影響？(思考Newport, Gleitman和Gleitman; Wexler和Culicover)
2. Define the following, with respect to language acquisition: positive evidence; negative evidence; Motherese. Which of these do children use in order to acquire their language? What is the evidence that some of these factors don't play an important role in language acquisition (think Newport, Gleitman and Gleitman; Wexler and Culicover)?

3.a)補語和修飾語有何不同？何為指示語？記住這三個詞，畫出(i)的結構樹。
3. a) What is the difference between a complement and an adjunct? What is a specifier? Keeping these terms in mind, give the tree structure for (i).

編註：Specifier指示語指的是出現在head中心語之前的詞語，請看以下例句：

Specifier	Head
a	table	(NP名詞片語)
very	good	(AP形容詞片語)
happily	marry	(VP動詞片語)
across	from	(PP介系詞片語)

(i)我父母一位從佛州來的朋友在車裡讀著Chomsky通用文法理論的書
(i) A friend of my parents from Florida read a book about Chomsky's theory of Universal Grammar in the car.

b)「讀」指派了什麼主題角色？(i)中哪些片語有這些主題角色？
b) What thematic roles does read assign? Which phrases get these thematic roles in (i)?

4.畫出下列句子的結構樹－包括IPs和CPs。
4. Give the tree structures for the following sentences - include IPs and CPs.
編註:IP=inflection phrase含字尾變化的片語;CP=complement phrase補語片語。

a)在比爾實驗室的兩位研究員想讓這隻猩猩學英文。
a) Two researchers in Bill's lab want for this gorilla to learn English.

b)這隻猩猩認為研究人員在浪費時間。
b) The gorilla thinks that the researchers are wasting their time.

5.畫出下列句子的結構樹，並寫出所有發生的移位。
5. Give the tree structures for the following sentences, and show all movements that take place.

a)小蘇西學到了什麼語言？
a) What language is little Susie acquiring?

b)他父母會糾正她的文法嗎？
b) Are her parents correcting her grammar?

c)蘇西並沒有聽她父母的話。
c) Susie has not been listening to her parents.

6.a)畫出下列德文句子的結構樹，並寫出所有發生的移位。
6. a) Give the tree structure for the following German sentence, and show the movements that take place.

Hans hat einen Roman gelesen
Hans has one novel read
"Hans has read one novel"

b)哪一句是正確的成人德文？畫出下列文法句的結構樹。
b) Which of the following sentences is correct in (adult) German? Give the tree structure for the grammatical sentence.

i) einen Roman Hans hat gelesen
ii) einen Roman hat Hans gelesen
iii) einen Roman hat gelesen Hans

7.a)對於(i)句，請用英文單字寫出此句在下列各語言中的形式：法語(主動受/非第二動詞)；德語(主受動/第二動詞)；瑞典語(主動受/第二動詞)；愛爾蘭語(主動受/第一動詞)。(有些語言可能不只一種字序—每種語言都請寫出全部可能的字序。)
7. a) For the sentence in (i), give the form of this sentence (using English words) for each of the following languages: French (SVO / non-V2); German (SOV / V2); Swedish (SVO / V2); Irish (SVO / V1). (More than one word order may be possible for some of the languages - give all possible word orders for each language).

(i)安妮喜歡巧克力。
(i) Anne likes chocolate.

法語
French
德語
German
瑞典語
Swedish
愛爾蘭語
Irish

b)寫出在下列各種語言中，兒童可能說出(i)句中的字根不定詞種類(依據任意時態理論)。
b) Give the root infinitive version of (i) that would be produced by a young child (according to the Optional Tense theory), for each of the languages below:

法語
French
德語
German
瑞典語
Swedish
愛爾蘭語
Irish

c)小孩習得下列各語言時，漏掉情態助動詞理論可能預測到的字序為何？寫出漏掉情態助動詞理論可能預測到的所有字序。
c) What would the Modal-Drop theory predict to be possible word orders for a child acquiring each of the following languages? Give all possible word orders that the Modal-Drop theory would predict.
編註: Modal情態助動詞是用來幫助動詞形成疑問、否定、或增加動詞意義的字，例如do/does/did/can/could/may/might/will/would/shall/should等。

法語
French
德語
German
瑞典語
Swedish
愛爾蘭語
Irish

8.a)畫出 (成人)法語句子(i)句中的樹狀圖。(注意：我不寫ne，此為一否定助詞，在正式法語中位於動詞之前，但在口語中可省略)。假設pas緊跟在動詞片語之後，寫出發生的移位。
8. a) Give the tree structure for the (adult) French sentence in (i). (Note: I'm leaving out ne, a negative particle that precedes the verb in formal French but that can be left out in colloquial French). Assume that pas is immediately to the left of the VP. Show the movements that take place.

(i) Marie aime pas Claude.
Marie likes not Claude.
「瑪莉不愛克勞德」
"Mary does not like Claude."

b)如果一個以法語為母語的小孩在其任意不定詞階段說出(i) 句中的不定詞動詞，結果會是怎樣的句子？(like的原形是aimer)。畫出此句的結構樹。
b) If an L1-French child in the Optional Infinitive stage produces an infinitival version of (i), what would the resulting sentence be? (The infinitival form of like is aimer). Give the tree structure for this sentence.

c)如果一個以法語為第二外語的成人學習者(i)句中的不定詞動詞，結果會是怎樣的句子？(思考Prévost和White)
c) If an adult L2-French learner produces an infinitival version of (i), what would the resulting sentence be? (Think Prévost and White).

9.a)何為普遍語法之原則？何為參數？
9. a) What is a principle of Universal Grammar? What is a parameter?

b)假設現在有一些以法語為母語、英語為第二語言的學習者，法語和英語在某一特定參數(R)有所差異:法語是[+R]，而英語是[-R]。以下範例中，在開始學習第二語言時，我們預料學習者會如何假定其R的價值？在第二語言學習結束時又是如何？
b) Let's say we have some L1-French speakers acquiring English as an L2. French and English differ on a particular parameter (R): French is [+R] and English is [-R]. Under each of the following models, what would we expect the learners to posit as the value for R at the start of their L2 acquisition? At the end of their L2 acquisition?

第二語言中有充分的普遍語法，沒有母語轉移。
UG is fully available in L2; no transfer from L1
有完整的母語轉移，但仍有普遍語法。
there is full transfer from the L1, but UG is also available
有完整的母語轉移，而除了藉由母語，無法習得普遍語法。
there is full transfer from the L1, and UG is not available except through the L1

編註：
1. Universal Grammer(UG)普遍語法於１９８８年由Noam Chomsky提出的語言習得模式，普遍語法由少量原則和參數構成，兒童經過環境和經驗的交互作用，在接觸少量具體語言輸入後，完成具體語言參數設定，進而習得具體的語言。
2. Language transfer母語轉移意指學習者將母語中的文法或語音特質或習慣直接轉移至外語使用中。

10.a)瑪莎2歲，以俄語為母語，以下是她會使用的詞彙：ja (我-主格), menja (我-受格), ona (她-主格), ee (她-受格), poju (唱-第一人稱單數), poet (唱-第三人稱單數), pet' (唱-原型)。俄語的預設格是主格，假設瑪莎正值任意不定詞階段，列出她運用上列詞彙可能說出的所有句子，並解釋原因。
10. a) Masha is a two-year-old acquiring Russian as her first language. The following lexical items are available to her: ja (I - NOM), menja (me-ACC), ona (she - NOM), ee (her - ACC), poju (sing - 1st person singular), poet (sings - 3rd person singular), pet' (sing - infinitive). The default case in Russian is nominative. Assuming that Masha is in the Optional Infinitive stage, list all the possible sentences she might produce using the lexical items above. Why?

b)瑪莉和瑪莎同齡，正在學習母語—英語。她和瑪莎一樣使用相同的詞彙，只不過是用英文。英文的預設格是受格，假設瑪莉正值任意不定詞階段，列出她運用上列詞彙可能說出的所有句子，並解釋原因。
b) Mary is the same age as Masha, and is acquiring English as her first language. The same lexical items are available to her as to Masha, except in English (I, me, she, her, sing, sings ). The default case in English is accusative. Assuming that Mary is in the Optional Infinitive stage, list all the possible sentences she might produce using the lexical items above. Why?

c)瑪莉學到了一些新詞彙，現在她知道play, plays和played。根據ATOM模式，she / her配上play / plays / played，她將說出怎樣的詞語組合？
c) Mary has acquired some new lexical items. She now knows play, plays, and played. According to the ATOM model, which combinations of she / her with play / plays / played will she produce? Why?

編註：ATOM=Agreement/Tense Omission Model一致性／時態省略模式，由Schutze和Wexler兩位教授提出，與case errors位格錯誤有關。

11.a)下列何句符合(成人)義大利語文法？翻譯如下：lui (他-主格), e (是-用法如英語助動詞has), arrivato (到達-過去分詞; 如同has arrived之用法)。請解釋你的答案。將你對義大利語的答案和對英語的判斷兩相比較。由例句來看，造成義大利語和英語差異的參數是什麼？
11. a) Which of the following sentences should be grammatical in (adult)Italian? The translations are as follows: lui (he-NOM), è (is - used like the English auxiliary has ), arrivato (arrived - past participle; as in has arrived ). Explain your answers. Compare your answers for Italian to the judgments given for English. What is the parameter, exemplified here, on which Italian and English differ?

義大利語	英語
__ è arrivato	"__ has arrived"
	bad
lui è arrivato [neutral intonation]	"he has arrived"
	good
LUI è arrivato [contrastive pronoun]	"HE has arrived"
	good

b)僅(a)題的證明下，兒童學習義大利語和英語時，我們可預料什麼？以義大利語為母語的兒童是否應該因主詞的存在而視義語如英語？或是以英語為母語的小孩應該視英語如義語嗎？為何？
b) Given only the evidence in (a), what would we expect for children learning English and Italian? Should L1-Italian children treat Italian like English with respect to presence of subjects, or should L1-English children treat English like Italian? Why?

c)習得英語和義語時，這個參數到底發生了什麼事？Hyams如何解釋？她建議兒童以何為觸發來適當地設定參數？
c) What actually happens with this parameter in acquisition of English vs. Italian? How does Hyams (1987) explain this? What is the trigger that she suggests kids use to set the parameter appropriately?

12.假使我們分析一名以英語為母語的兒童—喬治－的數據，習得英語初期時，喬治有時會用完整的名詞片語當主詞，有時用代名詞當主詞，而有時用空主詞。大約到了三歲，喬治不再使用空主詞，而使用明顯主詞的比例如下：使用完整名詞片語當主詞占25%，代名詞當主詞占75%。假設在他語言發展期間，完整名詞片語和代名詞主詞的比例維持不變。
12. Suppose that we analyzing data of an L1-English child, George. Early on in his acquisition of English, George sometimes uses full NP subjects, sometimes uses pronominal subjects, and sometimes uses null subjects. By around age three, George has ceased using null subjects, and has the following proportions for overt subject use: he uses full NP subjects 25% of the time, and pronominal subjects 75% of the time. Let's assume that proportions of full NP to pronominal subjects stays constant throughout development.

a)在早期範例中，喬治漏掉主詞占40%。利用已知資訊，填寫以下表格空白處：在喬治早期範例中，處理模式和語法模式會如何預測完整名詞片語以及代名詞主詞出現的比例呢？請解釋你的答案。課堂中看過的「夏娃與亞當」的資料較為支持哪一個模式？
a) In his early samples, George drops subjects about 40% of the time. Given this information, fill in the empty cells in the table below: what would the processing vs. grammatical models predict to be percentages of full NP and pronominal subjects in George's early samples? Explain your answers. Which model is better supported by the data of Eve and Adam that we looked at in class?