麻省理工学院“开放式课程网页” | 都市研究与计划 | 11.373 2004秋季课程：科学、政治与环境政策

课程
Table for Calendar
课	课程单元
第一部分: 什么是科学？ Part I: What is Science?
1	课程介绍 Introduction to the Course
2	政策过程和围绕「安定的科学」的政治辩论 The Policy Process and the Political Debate Over "Sound Science" 从左翼到右翼，对另一方如何运用科学有哪些评论？奠定两方评论性意见基础的（1）科学和（2）政策过程的模型分别是什么？当一方看起来与另一方说的是同一件事，你能否提出一个在环境决策中运用科学的替代性理性模型？ What are the critiques, from the left and the right, of the other side's use of science? What are the implicit models of (1) science and (2) the policy process that underpin both sides' critiques? Given that each side seems to say the same thing about the other, can you come up with an alternative to the rational model of science in environmental policymaking?
3	科学方法和科学知识的产生 The Scientific Method and the Production of Scientific Knowledge 什么是科学？科学家做什么？他们如何生产科学知识？实证主义者、相对论者（或者说是建构主义者）、以及实用现实主义者是如何回答这些问题的？科学是不是我们认识世界的可信和可靠的知识来源？为什么？ What is science? What do scientists do? How do they produce scientific knowledge? In what ways do positivists, relativists (or constructivists), and pragmatic realists answer these questions? Is science a source of reliable and valid knowledge about the world? Why, or why not?
4	环境（管理）科学，专家和专业知识 Environmental (Regulatory) Science, Experts, and Expertise 环境（管理、应用）科学是什么？为什么要将它，以及如何将它从「纯」（学术的、裁判的）科学区分开来？管理科学确切地说是如何被产生的？科学家的价值观、世界观在多大程度上影响了，以及如何影响了环境科学的实践？科学家怎样认识他们在政策过程中的角色？他们从何处获得权威？科学专家为什么在环境政策辩论中意见并不一致？ What is environmental (regulatory, applied) science? How and why is it different from "pure" (academic, bench) science? How, exactly, is regulatory science "made"? To what extent, and in what ways, do scientists' values, or worldviews, influence the practice of environmental science? How do scientists perceive their role in the policy process? Where do they get their authority? Why do scientific experts disagree in environmental policy disputes?
第二部分: 科学如何在政策过程中被过滤 Part II: How is Science Filtered Through the Policy Process?
5	环境宣扬：用科学来阐明问题 Environmental Advocacy: Using Science to Define Problems 环境宣扬人怎样利用科学为环境政策议题作定义和构建框架？为什么环境宣扬者所构建的议题框架非常重要？也就是说，它将如何影响决策？ How do advocates use science to define/frame environmental policy issues? Why does advocates' framing of issues matter -- that is, how might it affect policymaking?
6	科学和环境危机中媒体所能触及的范围 Media Coverage of Science and Environmental Risk 传媒如何触及科学和环境危机？如果媒体能够触及一些议题，它在多大程度上能够，以及如何能够影响环境决策？ How do the media cover science and environmental risk? To what extent and how do the media affect environmental policymaking, given their coverage of these topics?
7	公众对科学和环境危机的理解 The Public's Perception of Science and Environmental Risk 公众如何看待科学和科学家？公众如何理解环境危机？公众的意见是如何形成的，这些意见如何影响决策？ How does the public view science and scientists? How does the public understand environmental risk? How are the public's views shaped, and how might those views affect decision making?
8	立法决策中的科学 Science in Legislative Decision Making 国会在决定一条法律案时如何应对科学问题？为什么议员们总是把科学看作他们的工具？国会都做出了哪些类型的政策？这些政策如何反映了对环境问题的科学理解？ How does Congress deal with science when making legislative decisions? Why do members of Congress treat science the way they do? What kinds of policies does Congress produce, and how do they reflect the scientific understanding of environmental problems?
9	行政和司法决策中的科学 Science in Administrative and Judicial Decision Making 政府机构在行政决策中如何看待科学，为什么这样？法庭如何看待科学专业技术人员和政府机构对科学的使用？政府决策者对司法审查的预期如何影响了他们对以科学为基础的决策的态度？ How do agencies treat science in making administrative decisions and why? How do the courts treat scientific expertise and agencies' use of science? How do agency decision makers' expectations of judicial review influence their treatment of science-based decisions?
10	国际舞台上的科学 Science in the International Arena 与其他国家（包括已开发国家和发展中国家）相比，科学在进入政策过程的方法上有哪些差别？国际舞台上的决策如何反映了这些跨国差异？科学在国际环境决策中的运用与在国内的运用相比有哪些差异？ What are some differences in the way science is incorporated into the policy process in other (developing, developed) nations? How does decision making in the international arena reflect these cross-country differences? How is the use of science in international environmental policymaking different from the use of science within countries?
11	宣扬科学相对于协作科学 Advocacy Science vs. Collaborative Science 我们应当在多大程度上，以及如何将公众纳入基于科学的决策过程？什么是「关联事实发掘」？它如何工作？它的支持者为什么认为它比传统方法更可取？有哪些潜在障碍引起了基于科学的决策协作？ To what extent and how should we incorporate the public into science-based decision making? What is "joint fact finding" -- how does it work, and why do proponents think it is preferable to the conventional approach? What are some potential drawbacks creating the scientific basis for decision making collaboratively?
12	地方知识 Local Knowledge 确切地讲什么是「地方知识」或者「传统生态知识」？我们为什么希望（或者不希望）把它包括在我们对本来世界如何运转的评估当中？什么是公众流行病学？它如何阻碍或增强了我们了解环境疾病的能力？ What, exactly, is "local knowledge" or "traditional ecological knowledge," and why might we want (or not want) to include it in our assessments of how the natural world works? What is "popular epidemiology," and how might it impede or enhance our ability to understand environmental diseases?
13	不确定性、适应性管理，和预警原理 Uncertainty, Adaptive Management and the Precautionary Principle 什么是适应性管理？适应性管理的基本原理是什么？为什么科学家相信它将增进科学在环境决策中的运用？什么是预警原理？如果可以的话，它是如何与适应性管理相联系的？ What is adaptive management? What is the rationale for adaptive management -- why do scientists believe it will enhance the use of science in environmental policymaking? What is the precautionary principle, and how is it related, if at all, to adaptive management?