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课程简介
Introduction |
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| 2 |
柏拉图，《对话录：申辩篇》
Plato, Apology |
苏格拉底被控以哪些罪名? 是哪些人提出控诉?
What are the charges (formal and informal) made against Socrates? Who is making the charges?
苏格拉底如何为自己辩护?
How does Socrates defend himself against the charges?
苏格拉底说他不是一个会说话的人，他是认真的吗？
Socrates says he is not at all a clever speaker. Does he really mean this?
苏格拉底在什么层次上算是一个好的公民？
In what sense is Socrates a good citizen, if at all? |
| 3 |
柏拉图，《对话录：克里托篇》
Plato, Crito |
苏格拉底为了解释他为何应该要遵守法律甚至包括他的死刑在内，而对克里托提出有关法律的论证是什么?
What are the arguments of the 'Laws' that Socrates presents to Crito for why he should obey the Laws, including his death sentence?
这些有关法律的论证说服力如何?如果你认为他们不具说服力，你认为苏格拉底为什么要接受法律的统治?
How persuasive are the arguments of the Laws? If you think they are not persuasive, why do you think Socrates accepts the ruling of the Laws?
谁是苏格拉底在克里托篇中的真正听众?是克里托吗?（我们对于克里托的了解是什么?他的性格是什么?）是雅典吗?
Who is Socrates's real audience in the Crito? Is it Crito? (What do we know about Crito? What is his character?) Is it Athens?
法律与正义的差异:法律是正义的吗?如果它们是不正义的?那又为什么应该要遵守它们?
Distinction between law and justice: Are the Laws just? If they are unjust, why should one obey them, if at all? |
| 4 |
亚里斯多德《尼可马赫伦理学》
Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics |
无
no questions |
| 5-6 |
亚里斯多德，《政治学》
Aristotle, Politics |
第一卷（全部）
Book 1 (Entire)
亚里斯多德如何界定一件事物的本质，当他说“人天生是政治的动物。”他的意思是什么？人和动物的区别是什么？
How does Aristotle define the nature of a thing? What does he mean when he says that "man is by nature a political animal"? What distinguishes man from other animals?
亚里斯多德思考家庭中的各种关系：主人和奴隶、丈夫与妻子、父与子。亚里斯多德为哪一种关系辩护？如何辩护？
Aristotle considers different relations within the household: master and slave, husband and wife, and father and children. What kind of slavery does Aristotle defend? How does he defend it?
在第一卷后半中讨论到主奴、男女与父子关系时，亚里斯多德认为”几乎万事万物都因其本性而统治或被统治着”及”德性乃为所有人所共有”。则奴隶与女人的德性是什么?这种统治在不同关系中又有何不同?
Later in Book 1, in discussing relations between master and slave, male and female, and father and children, Aristotle states that "almost all things rule and are ruled according to nature" and that "excellence of character belongs to all of them" (Book 1, chapter 13). What are the excellences of slaves and women? How does the kind of rule differ in each case?
亚里斯多德区分两种致富的方法：一种是家务管理的一部份，另一种则是零售贸易，这两种之间有何不同?
Aristotle distinguishes between two types of wealth acquisition: that for the sake of household management and retail trade. What is the difference between the two?
第二卷（1-5章）
Book 2 (Chapters 1-5)
亚里斯多德认为，苏格拉底为柏拉图的《理想国》一书解释，倡议一个城邦若能尽可能一致是最好的，且苏格拉底也提出应该要禁绝家庭与私有财产而使妻子、小孩与财产皆属于共有。在亚里斯多德的观点中，这些建议有何错误?
Aristotle considers Socrates's supposition in Plato's Republic that it is best for the state to be as unified as possible and Socrates's proposals that the family and private property be abolished such that wives, children, and property were owned in common. What, in Aristotle's view, is wrong with these proposals?
第三卷（全部）
Book 3 (Entire)
在第三卷中，亚里斯多德企图寻找一个城邦是如何形成的，他首先认为一个城邦是由公民所组成的，什么是公民?公民的德性是什么?一个良善的人与一个良善的公民又有何不同?谁能被视为一个公民?
In Book 3, Aristotle seeks to determine what a state is. He first considers what the state is composed of: citizens. What is a citizen, and what are the excellences of a citizen? What is the difference between a good man and a good citizen? Who is considered a citizen?
正确的政体有哪些不同种类?这些种类中有哪些不同的原则作为基础?正确政体种类的”变体”有哪些?
What are the different "true" forms of government? What are the different principles upon which each is based? What are the "perversions" of the "true" forms of government?
当亚里斯多德说”公正…被认为是平等--但并非对于所有人而言皆如此，而仅是对于那些彼此平等的人而言”他的意思是什么?顺便思考他在第三卷12章中关于吹笛师的讨论。
What does Aristotle mean by "justice is…equality-not, however, for all, but only for equals." (Book 3, chapter 9) Consider also his discussion of flute-players in Book 3, chapter 12.
城邦的目标是什么?它又为了什么而存在?
What is the purpose of the state? For what sake does it exist? (Book 3, chapter 9)
第四册（1-13章）
Book 4 (Chapters 1-13)
什么是理论上最佳或最完美的政体形式?又对大多数城邦而言，哪种政体实际上最为适合?
What is the best or perfect form of government in the abstract? What form of government is actually the best for most states? (See, in particular, Book 4, chapters 1, 7, and 11)
民主政体与寡头政体有何不同?这两者其中又可分为哪些不同的种类?
What is the difference between democracy and oligarchy? What are the different types of each?
什么是共和政体或宪政政体?为什么亚里斯多德认为共和政体是最佳且可行的政体?
What is "polity" or "constitutional government"? Why does Aristotle think that polity is the best practical form of government?
第五卷（1-5章,第8章）
Book 5 (Chapters 1-5, 8)
革命的主要原因是什么？
What are the primary causes of revolutions?
政体如何维持或保存？
How can political regimes be preserved?
第六卷（1-5章）
Book 6 (Chapters 1-5)
民主政体是建立在怎样的原则之上？民主政体的特征是什么？
What is the principle upon which democracy is based? What are the characteristics of a democracy?
在讨论民主政体的不同种类时，亚里斯多德宣称最好的民主是由农民组成的，而最差的民主乃是彼此共同分享财产。他为什么会如此认为?
In discussing the varieties of democratic regimes, Aristotle states that the best type of democracy is one composed of an agricultural population, and the worst type is one in which "all share alike." Why does he think this?
第七卷（全部）
Book 7 (Entire)
亚里斯多宣称最幸福的生活就是”具有德性的生活”。他的意思是什么? 为了达到这种生活有哪三种东西是一个人所需要的?
Aristotle claims that the best life is the "life of excellence." What does he mean by this? What are the three different types of goods that a person needs in order to lead such a life?
亚里斯多德如何回应思辨的生活（哲学家的生活）与主动实践的生活（政治家的生活）何者才是最好的生活这个问题?
How does Aristotle respond to the question of whether the contemplative life (the life of the philosopher) or the active life (the life of the statesman) is the best life?
个人最好的生活是否与城邦最好的生活相同?
Is the best life for the individual the same as the best life for the city?
最好或最理想的城邦需要哪些必要的条件?（谁应该被包含在内?谁不应被包含?公民应该具备哪些特质?城邦的大小应该为何?）
What are the conditions necessary for the best or ideal state? (Who should be included? Who excluded? What should be the character of the citizens? What should be its size?)
亚里斯多德认为”有三种东西可以使人更好更具有德性；它们是本性，习惯与理性（第七册第13章）这些东西分别如何使人变好?
Aristotle states, "There are three things which make men good and excellent; these are nature, habit, and reason" (Book 7, chapter 13). How do each of these things make men good?
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马基维里，《君王论》
Machiavelli, The Prince |
马基维里将政体分为两种：君主政体和共和政体。君主政体有哪几种类型？
Machiavelli categorizes political regimes into two main types: principalities and republics. What are the different types of principalities?
在《君王论》的六到九章里，马基维里探讨了建立新的君主政体的不同方式：依靠一个人的武力与才能(美德)、藉他人之力或好运、透过邪恶之道，或者透过公民的支持。他举证哪些人是依靠自己的武力与才能(美德)建立新王国？他所说的才能（美德）指的是什么？例如：凯萨˙波西亚如何展现这类才能？（参见第七章）波西亚和西西里岛人阿加索克里斯有何不同？在马基维里的观点中，谁较缺乏这种才能？（参见第八章）
In chapters 6-9 of The Prince, Machiavelli discusses different ways of founding new principalities: through one's own arms and "skill" (virtù), through arms and the fortunes of others, through wickedness, or through the support of fellow citizens. What are some of the examples he gives of men who founded new principalities through their own skill (virtù)? What does he mean by "skill" (virtù)? For example, how did Cesare Borgia display this skill? (see chapter 7) What distinguishes Borgia from Agathocles the Sicilian, who lacked this skill in Machiavelli's view? (see chapter 8)
”一位君王除了研究战争、战术、和军队纪律外，并不应该再有别的目的或思想…”（14章,124页）为什么马基维里如此重视军事艺术?
"A prince…must not have any other object nor any other thought, nor must he take anything as his profession but war, its institutions, and its discipline…" (chapter 14, p. 124). Why does Machiavelli attach so much importance to military art?
为什么对君王而言被惧比被爱好？
Why is it better for a prince to be feared than loved? (see chapter 17)
马基维里在《君王论》全书中不断的提到“命运”， 譬如说，他提及有些君王“藉由他们自身的才能而非机运”获得他们的王国（93页）、“机运决定了我们的一半行动”（159页），还有“鲁莽比谨慎更好，因为机运很像女子，你如果想控制她需先以暴力征服她”（162页）马基维里所指的“机运”是什么意思？
Machiavelli refers to "Fortune" throughout The Prince. He says, for example, that some princes acquired their principalities "by means of their own skill and not because of Fortune…" (p. 93), that "…Fortune is the arbiter of one half of our actions…" (159) and that "…it is better to be impetuous than cautious, because Fortune is a woman, and it is necessary, in order to keep her down, to beat her and to struggle with her" (162). What does he mean by "Fortune"? |
| 8-9 |
马基维里，《李维罗马史论》
Machiavelli, The Discourses on Livy |
马基维里探讨罗马和斯巴达的共和政体，他认为哪一个可以当作共和政体的模范？为什么？
Machiavelli discusses both the Roman and Spartan republics. Which does he hold up as the model for republics, and why?
为什么人民和贵族间的冲突有助于维护共和政体内的自由？（参见《李维罗马史疏义》第一卷第四章）
How does conflict between the people and the nobility help preserve freedom within republics? (see Discourses, Book 1, chapter 4)
马基维里如何批评基督教教会？在马基维里的观念中，宗教在政治中应该扮演怎样的角色？（参见《李维罗马史疏义》第一卷第十一、十二章，第二卷第二章）
How does Machiavelli criticize the Christian church? What, in Machiavelli's view, should be the role of religion in politics? (see Discourses, Book 1, chapters 11-12; Book 2, chapter 2)
在马基维里的观点中是否存在着对政治的道德限制？
Are there any moral constraints on politics in Machiavelli's view?
马基维里如何捍卫政府的共和形式？共和政体为何比君主政体更令人向往？
How does Machiavelli defend the republican form of government? In what ways is a republic more desirable than a principality? |
| 10-12 |
霍布斯，《利维坦》
Hobbes, Leviathan |
霍布斯如何描述人性的特质？人类的本能需要是什么？人类渴望什么？如果有的话，什么是他们所谓的“Summum Bonum”（拉丁文的“至善”）
How does Hobbes characterize human nature? What are the drives or motives of human beings? What do they desire? What, if anything, is their Summum Bonum (greatest good)?
霍布斯如何描述人类自然状态的特质？就什么意义而言人在自然中是平等的？为何自然状态是一种战争的状态？在自然状态中人会被约束吗？
How does Hobbes characterize the "NATURALL CONDITION of Mankind"? In what sense are men equal in the state of nature? Why is the state of nature a state of war? Do men have obligations in the state of nature?
霍布斯如何理解自由的意义？（参见14章和21章）
What is Hobbes's understanding of liberty? (see chapters 14 and 21)
自然法则是什么?
What are the Laws of Nature?
契约是什么?契约是否必然源于恐惧?你同意吗?
What is a contract? Are contracts entered into by fear obligatory? Do you agree?
公共利益如何形成？霍布斯如何合理化政治权威的存在？
How is a commonwealth instituted? How does Hobbes justify political authority?
霍布斯主张绝对且不可分割的王权。他如何为绝对的王权辩护?王权的权力有哪些?
Hobbes argues for absolute, indivisible sovereignty. How does he defend absolute sovereignty? What are the rights of the sovereign?
如果王权的权力有限制，限制为何?
What, if any, are the limits on the power of the sovereign?
霍布斯主张没有公共利益就没有财产。他为何如此认为?（24章）你对于这项论证有何看法?
Hobbes argues that where there is no commonwealth there is no property. Why does he think this? (chapter 24) What do you think of this argument?
霍布斯对于惩罚的观点为何?惩罚所应有的目的为何?（28章）
What is Hobbes's view of punishment? What purpose should punishment serve? (chapter 28) |
| 13-15 |
洛克，《政府论次讲》
Locke, Second Treatise |
自然状态
State of Nature
洛克如何描述自然状态?当他说每个人都享有充当自然法之执行人的权利时，他的意思是什么?自然状态与战争状态的差别是什么?
How does Locke characterize the state of nature? What does he mean when he says that every man has a right to "be executioner of the law of nature"? What is the difference between the state of nature and the state of war?
洛克对于自然状态的观点与霍布斯如何不同?
How is Locke's view of the state of nature different from Hobbes's view?
私有财产
Private Property
洛克在《政府论次讲》的第五章讨论了私有财产的起源，他说上帝将世界给予人类所共有。我们要如何连结“人类共有”的财产到私有财产?私有财产是如何产生的?又私有财产的正当性如何建立?
Locke discusses the origins of private property in chapter 5 of the Second Treatise. He states that God has given the earth to "mankind in common" (18). How do we get from property of "mankind in common" to private property? How does private property originate? What justifies private property?
私有财产的累积有任何限制吗?
Are there any limits on the accumulation of private property?
洛克主张劳动”赋予万物不同的价值”。他比较了一英亩种植烟草或是糖的土地与一英亩毫无农作的土地，并认为是劳动的进步大幅增加了土地的价值。事实上，在有利于人生活的土地产品中，十分之九是劳动的结果。你认为这个观点如何?
Locke argues that it is labor that "puts the difference of value on everything." He compares an acre of land planted with tobacco or sugar and an acre of land "without any husbandry upon it," and argues that the "improvement of labour makes the far greater part of the value." In fact, of the products of the earth useful to the life of man, nine-tenths (even ninety-nine hundredths) of the value of the products is derived from labor. (See p. 25) What do you think of this view?
政府
Government
什么是政治权力正当化的基础?多数人的同意与意志在洛克对于政治权力的说明中扮演了什么样的角色?
What justifies political obligation? What role do consent and the will of the majority play in Locke's account of political obligation?
与霍布斯相反，洛克反对绝对的君权:绝对的君权虽被某些人视为是世界上唯一的政体，实际上却是与公民社会相矛盾的，同时也不可能转变为公民政府。他为什么会如此认为?
In contrast to Hobbes, Locke opposes absolute monarchy: "absolute monarchy, which by some men is counted the only government in the world, is indeed inconsistent with civil society, and so can be no form of civil government at all" (48). Why does Locke think this?
政府的最主要目标或目的是什么?你认为洛克在尝试说明私有财产的保存是政府的正当职责时是否被误导?
What is the primary end or purpose of government? Do you think Locke was misguided in trying to account for the legitimate functions of government in terms of the preservation of property?
政府有哪些不同权力?这些个别权力的功能是什么?为什么立法权乃是最高的权力?
What are the different powers of government, and what are the functions of each? Why is the legislative power supreme?
何时反抗政府的革命会是正当的?
When are rebellions against government justified? |
| 16-17 |
卢梭，《论人类不平等的起源和基础》
Rousseau, Discourse on Inequality |
卢梭主张自己的研究方法乃”推测的历史”。他的意思是什么?
Rousseau speaks of his method as "conjectural history." What does he mean by this?
卢梭与霍布斯同样认为人并非天生具有政治性，但是卢梭认为霍布斯与其他曾经描述过自然状态的哲学家犯了相同的错误：霍布斯认为自然人所拥有的热情与需求只有在理性与政治社会出现后才能获得。则卢梭对于自然或政治性出现之前的人的观点为何?
Rousseau shares with Hobbes the view that man is not by nature political, but Rousseau thinks that Hobbes commits the same fallacy as other philosophers who have written on the state of nature: Hobbes attributes to natural man the passions and needs which he could only have acquired after the rise of reason and political society. What then is Rousseau's view of natural or pre-political man?
在区别人与其他动物时，卢梭指出自由意志与人求取完备的能力或”求取完备性”乃是不同之处，卢梭对于个人意志的概念与霍布斯有何不同?卢梭认为求取完备性是”所有人类不幸的根源”，他为何如此认为?
In distinguishing between man and all other animals, Rousseau points to free will and man's faculty for self-perfection or "perfectibility." How does Rousseau's idea of individual will differ from Hobbes's? Rousseau states that perfectibility is "the source of all man's misfortunes" (45). Why does he think this?
在追溯人类之间不平等的历程时，卢梭从社会发展、法律建立与财产权到独裁政体，这样的过程究竟如何发生?人的自尊与希望得到尊重的欲望在这些过程中又扮演了怎样的角色?这些问题又是如何发生?他们要如何导致自足的丧失?政府如何建立?又在卢梭的观点里为何它是不正当的?
In tracing the "progress of inequality" among men, Rousseau moves from the development of society and the establishment of law and the right to property to despotism. How exactly does this "progress" occur? What role does man's pride and desire for esteem play in this "progress"? How did they arts emerge, and how did they lead to the loss of self-sufficiency? How was government established, and why, in Rousseau's view, is it illegitimate? |
| 18-19 |
卢梭，《社会契约论》
Rousseau, Social Contract |
卢梭在社约论中的目标是展现政治统治会如何正当地产生，为了提供一个答案，他利用社会契约的概念。他对于《社会契约论》的构想乃基于全意志的概念。什么是全意志?我们又如何从个人意志推演至全意志?全意志与众人拥护的总意志又有何差异?
Rousseau's aim in the Social Contract is to show how political rule can be made legitimate. In providing an answer, he draws on the idea of the social contract. His conception of the social contract is based on his notion of the general will. What is the general will? How do we get from individual wills to the general will? Is his distinction between the general will and the will of all defensible?
卢梭对于自由的想法为何?他说在进入我们都被全意志统治的公民社会时，我们会丧失自然的自由而得到公民与道德的自由。自然、公民与道德的自由有何不同?
What is Rousseau's conception of liberty? He says that in moving into the civil state in which we are governed by the general will, we lose our natural liberty and gain civil and moral liberty. What is the difference between natural, civil, and moral liberty?
卢梭认为”无论是何人拒绝遵守全意志都将会被众人强迫其遵守，他将会被强迫得到自由。”你对于这段论述有何看法? 这是否是对于自由的背叛?
Rousseau states, "…whoever refuses to obey the general will be forced to do so by the entire body…he will be forced to be free" (150). What do you make of this statement? Is this a betrayal of liberty?
卢梭主张主权是不能让与也不可分割的，谁是主权?为什么主权不能让与也不可分割?主权权力的限制为何?
Rousseau argues that sovereignty is inalienable and indivisible. Who is the sovereign? Why is sovereignty inalienable and indivisible? What are the limits on sovereign power?
卢梭如何定义政府?人民与政府之间的关系为何?他是否较偏好某种形式的政体（君主政体、贵族政体或民主政体）而多于其他?为什么或为什么不?
How does Rousseau define government? What is the relationship between the people and government? Does he favor one form of government (monarchy, aristocracy, or democracy) over others? Why or why not?
什么是公民宗教?又公民宗教的目的为何？
What is civil religion, and what purpose does it serve? |
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马克思，《论犹太人问题》、《一八四四年经济学哲学手稿》
Marx, "On the Jewish Question," and "1844 Manuscripts" |
〈论犹太人问题〉第26-52页
"On the Jewish Question", pp. 26-52.
马克思所提到的问题是犹太人的解放如何完成，自由主义者主张政教分离（去除宗教对于公民的限制）。曾是黑格尔门生的哲学家布鲁诺˙鲍威尔认为犹太人必须舍弃他们的宗教才能够达到解放。马克思认为自由主义和鲍威尔的解释有怎样的问题？马克思所指的“解放”是什么？“政治解放”和“人的解放”两者有何相异之处？
The question that Marx addresses is how the emancipation of the Jews could be achieved. Liberals argued for separation of religion and politics (i.e. remove civil disabilities based on religion). Bruno Bauer, a philosopher who was a student of Hegel's, argued that emancipation of the Jews required that they renounce their religion. What does Marx think is wrong with both the liberal solution and Bauer's solution? What does Marx mean by emancipation? What is the difference between "political emancipation" and "human emancipation"?
作品的第二部分，马克思探究犹太人的本质。他认为宗教生活的内容提供了某些社会问题的线索，他说明犹太人在基督教社会中所采取的社会形式是对金钱的崇拜，这正是商业社会中基督教物质生活的本质。对金钱的崇拜在基督徒的商业社会中有何不妥？他所说的“将社会从犹太主义中解放”是什么意思？
In the second part of this work, Marx explores the nature of Jewishness; he thinks that the content of religious life provides clues to the social problems that give rise to religion. He says that the social form that Jewishness takes in Christian societies is worship of money, which is also the reality of Christian material life within commercial society. What is wrong with the worship of money at the heart of Christian commercial society? What does he mean when he calls for "the emancipation of society from Judaism"?
〈一八四四年经济学哲学手稿〉第70-81页
"Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844", pp. 70-81.
在标题为“异化劳动”的这一章节里，马克思探讨四个层次的异化：劳动者与产品的异化、劳动者与劳动实践的异化、人的本质的异化（马克思认为使得人为人的本质是创造能力以及反思创作之集体本质的能力）以及人与人的异化。马克思所说的异化是什么意思？异化的劳动力跟私有财产有何关系？
In the section titled "Estranged Labor," Marx discusses four aspects of alienation: alienation of the laborer from his product, alienation of the laborer from the act of production, the alienation from man's species being (what makes man a "species being" for Marx is the ability to create socially and reflect on the collective nature of such creative activity), and alienation of man from man. What does Marx mean by alienation? What does alienated labor have to do with private property? |
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马克思，《共产党宣言与资本论选读》
Marx, "Communist Manifesto" and Selections from Capital |
〈共产党宣言〉第473-491页
"Manifesto of the Communist Party", pp. 473-491.
这作品由马克思与恩格斯共同撰写并在1848年这个革命的年代出版。其中，马克思和恩格斯试着连结他们对历史发展的解释和革命政治的前景。他们指出了历史发展的几个阶段？我们如何从一个阶段前进到下一个阶段？马克思说“资产阶级……制造了自身的掘墓者”这是什么意思？无产阶级在这个历史发展的进程中扮演着怎样的角色？
This work was written jointly with Frederick Engels and published in the revolutionary year of 1848. In it, Marx and Engels sought to connect their account of historical development to the prospects for revolutionary politics. What different stages of historical development do they identify? How do we move from one stage to another? What does Marx mean when he says, "[T]he bourgeoisie…produces, above all, …its own grave-diggers" (p. 483)? What is the role of the proletarian class in this account of historical development?
《资本论》，第302-308页、319-343页、407-419页）Capital, pp. 302-8, 319-43, 361-84, 407-19.
在作品中，马克思解释了在《1844手稿》当中道德辩证背后的政治经济学。马克思如何定义下列辞汇；商品、使用价值、交换价值？
In this work, Marx provides the political economy behind the moral arguments of the 1844 Manuscripts. How does Marx define the following terms: commodity, use-value, and exchange-value?
劳动力是一种商品，和其他商品不同的是，劳动力创造交换价值。劳动力的这种特质可以解释资本主义体系其利益的来源。产品的使用价值和社会制造它所需要劳动时间两者有何关系？
Labor-power is a commodity; unlike all other commodities, labor-power creates exchange-value. This unique feature of labor-power explains the source of profits in a capitalist system. What is the relationship between the exchange value of a product and the labor time socially necessary to produce it?
什么是商品拜物教（Fetishism of commodities）？它的来源为何？
What is the Fetishism of commodities? What are its origins?
绝对的剩余价值与相对的剩余价值两者有何差别？什么是剥削（exploitation）？马克思如何计算剥削的程度？
What is the difference between absolute and relative surplus value? What is exploitation, and how does Marx calculate the rate of exploitation? |
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托克维尔，《民主在美国》
Tocqueville, Democracy in America |
基于1830年在美国的旅行，托克维尔一个重要的观察是美国人乃“生而平等”，请问这是什么意思？
Based on his travels through America in 1830, one central observation that Tocqueville made was that Americans were "born equal." What did he mean by this?
托克维尔如何区分集权政府与行政集权？为什么民主国家较容易受到“行政集权”的羁绊？他认为什么乃是美国去除行政集权的政治结果？
How does Tocqueville distinguish between governmental and administrative centralization? Why are democratic nations more likely to fall under the "yoke of administrative centralization"? What did he see as the political effects of administrative decentralization in America?
美国的政治社团有几种主要的类型？它们的目标是什么？
What are the main types of associations in America? What are their aims?
在托克维尔的观念中，什么是民主的主要优点？什么是民主的缺点？
What are the main advantages of democracy in Tocqueville's view? What are its disadvantages?
托克维尔认为多数暴政乃是美国自由的最大威胁？什么是多数暴政？它是如何发生的？该如何避免或缓和它？
Tocqueville regarded tyranny of the majority as the greatest threat to liberty in America. What is tyranny of the majority? How does it come about? How can it be prevented or at least tempered?
托克维尔指出有助于美国维护民主共和的三个主要原因:好运、法律以及习俗。他所谓的习俗或者习惯是什么意思？（第一卷，第二部份，第九章，287页）其中哪一个原因最具影响力，为什么？
【译注：所谓“好运”托克维尔所指的是上帝为美国人安排的独特的、幸运的地理环境；没有强邻，毋需担心大战、入侵，亦不需要钜额的税收和军队；没有可以影响全国的巨大首都等等条件】
He identifies three main factors that have helped maintain a democratic republic in the United States: good luck, laws, and mores. What does he mean by mores or "habits of the heart"? (Vol. 1, Part 2, chapter 9, p. 287) Which of these factors is most influential, and why?
宗教是如何直接或者间接的促成美国民主共和的持续？
How has religion contributed directly or indirectly to the maintenance of a democratic republic in America?
在托克维尔的观点里，奴隶制在哪些方面对多数白人无益？对于黑人的奴役和美洲原住民的消灭，他提出怎样的批评？对于奴隶制废止后美国的种族关系，托克维尔提出了怎样的预期？
In what ways is slavery bad for the white majority in Tocqueville's view? What judgments does he offer about the enslavement of blacks and the extermination of Native Americans in America? What did he predict about race relations in America after the abolition of slavery?
托克维尔对于自由的观念为何？
What is Tocqueville's conception of liberty?
为什么在民主国家中，相对于自由人民对于平等有更多的热爱？这种对于平等的热情如何威胁自由的存在？
Why in democratic nations do people "love" or have passion for equality more than liberty? How does this passion for equality threaten liberty?
托克维尔讨论平等会产生个人主义，进而会导致专制政治。这样的过程如何产生？托克维尔如何描述民主国家必须小心的专制政治？
Tocqueville discusses how equality of conditions can breed "individualism", which in turn leads to despotism. How does this development occur? How does Tocqueville characterize the "despotism" that democratic nations have to fear?
什么是”正确理解的私益原则?”它又如何对抗个人主义?
What is "the doctrine of self-interest properly understood"? How does it combat individualism?
一般而言，民主对于一般人的举止和习俗有何影响？又，民主对主奴之间的关系、对家庭、对女性的教育有何影响？
What is the influence of democracy on the manners or mores of the people in general and on relations between master and servant, on the family, and on the education of girls in particular?
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结论
Concluding Lecture |
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期末考
Final Exam |
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