文学课程报告写作提示
Some Pointers for Writing Papers in Literature Courses
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精选事件年表Selective Chronology of Events
| 创建时期Foundations |
| 西元前753年753 BCE |
罗马城建立。罗慕勒斯（奎里纳斯）建立罗马，实行王政。Urbs Condita. Rome founded by Romulus (Quirinus) under the rule of kings. |
| 西元前507年507 |
共和成立。罗马宣告成为共和政体，王政遭推翻。Res Publica. Roman Republic proclaimed: rule of kings overthrown. |
| 开疆拓土时期Expansion |
| 西元前264-241年264-241 |
第一次布匿战争。
亚努斯神殿的大门开启。
First Punic War. Doors of the Temple of Janus are opened. |
| 西元前218-201年218-201 |
第二次布匿战争。
第一次马其顿战争（西元前215到205年）。
Second Punic War. First Macedonian War (215-205). |
| 西元前200-197年200-197 |
第二次马其顿战争。
|
| 西元前172-168年172-168 |
第三次马其顿战争。Third Macedonian War. |
| 西元前149-146年149-146 |
第三次布匿战争。
迦太基灭亡。罗马于各地建立行省：西西里、萨丁尼亚、科西嘉、西班牙（露西塔尼亚和塔拉科南西斯）、法国（山外高卢）、利比亚（非洲）和希腊（马其顿尼亚）。
Third Punic War. Destruction of Carthage. Roman Provinces established: Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain (Lusitania and Tarraconensis), France (Transalpine Gaul), Libya (Africa), and Greece (Macedonia). |
| 西元前133年133 |
政策改革者提伯留斯．格拉古在元老院唆使下遭杀害。*译注3
小亚细亚成为罗马行省。
Tiberius Gracchus, political reformer, murdered at instigation of the Senate. Asia Minor becomes a Roman province. |
| 西元前121年121 |
护民官及政策改革者盖乌斯．格拉古在暴乱中遭杀害。Gaius Gracchus, tribune and political reformer, murdered in a riot. |
| 西元前106年106 |
西塞罗诞生。Birth of Marcus Tullius Cicero. |
| 西元前105年105 |
凯撒之叔马略与苏拉共同击败北非努米迪亚国王朱古札。Marius, the uncle of Julius Caesar, and Sulla together defeat Jugurtha, king of Numidia, in North Africa. |
| 西元前88-84年88-84 |
第一次米特里达提战争。First War with Mithridates. |
| 西元前83年83 |
马略与苏拉内战；马略战败。Civil War between Marius and Sulla; Marius defeated. |
| 西元前83-79年83-79 |
苏拉被任命为独裁官。
第二次米特里达提战争。
Sulla appointed dictator. Second War with Mithridates (83-81). |
| 西元前74-64年74-64 |
第三次米特里达提战争。Third War with Mithridates. |
| 共和晚期Late Republic |
| 西元前71年71 |
斯巴达克斯领导的奴隶起义遭到执政官庞培与克拉苏镇压。Slave revolt led by Spartacus suppressed by the consuls Pompey the Great and Crassus. |
| 西元前70年70 |
维吉尔于曼图亚附近诞生。米西奈斯诞生。Birth of Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil) near Mantua. Birth of Maecenas. |
| 西元前66年66 |
西塞罗担任执政官时期；平息“加帝蓝阴谋”事件。Consulship of Cicero; Conspiracy of Catiline suppressed. |
| 西元前65年65 |
贺拉斯于亚浦里亚的韦努西亚诞生。Birth of Quintus Horatius Flaccus (Horace) at Venusia in Apulia. |
| 西元前64年64 |
庞培击败米特里达提，且将小亚细亚纳入罗马统治。
|
| 西元前63年63 |
屋大维（奥古斯都）诞生。庞培完成征服巴勒斯坦。Birth of Octavian (Augustus). Pompey completes the Conquest of Palestine. |
| 西元前60年60 |
第一“三巨头政治”形成：克拉苏、庞培与凯撒（西元前60到53年）。Formation of the First Triumvirate: Crassus, Pompey, Julius Caesar (60-53). |
| 西元前59年59 |
凯撒征服高卢。李维于帕都亚诞生。Julius Caesar conquers Gaul. Birth of Titus Livius (Livy) in Padua. |
| 西元前54年54 |
凯撒侵略不列颠。Julius Caesar invades Britain. |
| 西元前50年50 |
普罗佩提乌斯诞生。
提布卢斯诞生。
Birth of Propertius. Birth of Tibullus. |
| 西元前49年49 |
庞培与凯撒内战（西元前49到48年）。Civil War between Pompey and Julius Caesar (49-48). |
| 西元前48年48 |
法萨卢斯战役（庞培战败，后于埃及遭克丽奥派屈拉下令杀害）。Battle of Pharsalus (Pompey defeated, later murdered in Egypt by order of Cleopatra). |
| 西元前46年46 |
西塞罗编撰《布鲁特斯》。Cicero composes the Brutus. |
| 西元前45年45 |
凯撒受任命为独裁官。
凯撒收养外甥屋大维为其继承人。
Julius Caesar appointed dictator. He adopts his nephew Octavian as his heir. |
| 西元前44年44 |
凯撒遭暗杀。
西塞罗发表《反腓力辞》反对安东尼。
Julius Caesar assassinated. Cicero delivers The Philippics against Mark Antony. |
| 西元前43年43 |
第二“三巨头政治”形成：屋大维、安东尼与雷比达（西元前43年至32年）。Formation of the Second Triumvirate: Octavian, Mark Antony, Lepidus (43-32 BCE).
西塞罗遭处决。奥维德于萨莫诞生。Cicero executed. Birth of Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid) at Sulmo. |
| 西元前42年42 |
菲利皮战役（布鲁图与卡西乌斯战败）。Battle of Philippi (Brutus and Cassius defeated). |
| 西元前37年37 |
维吉尔出版《牧歌》。Virgil publishes Eclogues. |
| 西元前33年33 |
米西奈斯赠送贺拉斯一座农庄。Horace receives a Sabine farm from Maecenas. |
| 西元前31年31 |
亚克兴海战（安东尼和克丽奥派屈拉战败）。
贺拉斯出版《讽刺诗集》的第一册。
Battle of Actium (Mark Antony and Cleopatra defeated). Horace publishes his first book of Satires. |
| 西元前29年29 |
李维开始编撰《罗马前史》（西元前29至24年）。
维吉尔出版《田园诗》。
亚努斯神殿的门正式关闭。
Livy begins composing The Early History of Rome (29-24). Virgil publishes the Georgics. The doors of the Temple of Janus are officially shut. |
| 帝政时期Imperial Rome |
| 西元前27年27 |
屋大维受尊为“奥古斯都”。“回归共和”。奥古斯都被授与“美德之盾”称号。Octavian renamed Augustus. "Res Publica restituta." Augustus awarded the clupeus virtutis. |
| 西元前23年23 |
贺拉斯出版前三册《歌集》。Horace publishes his first three books of Odes. |
| 西元前19年19 |
维吉尔逝世；《伊尼亚斯逃亡记》于其死后出版。Death of Virgil; Aeneid published posthumously. |
| 西元前18年18 |
奥古斯都颁布“茱莉亚婚姻法”，建立了严格的婚姻法制。*译注8Augustus establishes strict marriage legislation with the Lex Julia de maritandis ordinibus. |
| 西元前17年17 |
“盛世大祭典”举办。Secular games held. |
| 西元前13年13 |
贺拉斯出版《歌集》第四册。Horace publishes his fourth book of Odes. |
| 西元前12年12 |
奥古斯都成为“最高祭司”。Augustus becomes pontifex maximus. |
西元前12-9年
12-9 |
奥古斯都的继子杜色斯和提比略攻打日耳曼。Military campaign in Germany under Drusus and Tiberius, Augustus' stepsons. |
| 西元前9年9 |
元老院献上“奥古斯都的和平祭坛”。Ara pacis Augustae dedicated. |
| 西元前8年8 |
贺拉斯逝世。
米西奈斯逝世。
Death of Horace. Death of Maecenas. |
| 西元前1年1 |
奥维德出版《爱的艺术》。Ovid publishes his Ars amatoria. |
| 西元8年8 CE |
奥维德出版长诗《变形记》。
奥维德遭流放至黑海边的托密斯。
Ovid publishes his Metamorphoses. Ovid banished to Tomis on the black sea. |
| 西元14年14 |
奥古斯都逝世。Death of Augustus. |
| 西元17年17 |
李维逝世。
奥维德逝世。
Death of Livy. Death of Ovid. |
|
罗马官员及其职责Roman Officials and their Duties
执政官Consul
对抗专制的守护者、担任旧时国王的管理责任 – 军事战役的指挥、公众金融的管理，还有立法的控制 – 通常由元老院在每年年初，从贵族阶层中推派两人为执政官，以一年轮流制为准则。在紧急的时刻，其中一人会被任命为权力无上限（如同帝权）的‘独裁官’，并且不需对元老院和人民解释负责。As a safeguard against despotism, the former administrative duties of the king-the conduct of military campaigns, the management of public finance, and the control of legislation-were distributed at the beginning of each year between two men, usually elected by the Senate from the patrician class, who served on an annual, rotating basis. In time of emergency, one of the consuls might be named "Dictator" with unlimited powers (known as "imperium") and no accountability either to the Senate or the People.
总督Proconsul
在执政权任期内，总督是罗马以外治理行省的最高权力。In the year following his term of consulship, the proconsul held imperial authority outside of Rome in whichever province he was assigned to govern.
保民官Tribunus
为了反制平衡贵族的执政权力，平民设置了保民官的职位。保民官是由公民大会从氏族中选举，对抗这些滥权的元老和执政官以保护人民。保民官享有极崇高的地位，个人上高于法律。To counter-balance the consular powers of the Patricians, the Plebians created the office of tribune, elected by the popular assembly from among the tribes to protect the people from perceived abuses of authority by the Senate and the consuls. Tribunes enjoyed sancrosanct status and were personally above the law.
执法官Praetor
执行正义和仲裁纠纷的当地官员；派任在罗马境内的称为市区执法官，罗马外的称为外地执法官。The local official responsible for administering justice and arbitrating disputes was called praetor urbanus when he was assigned in Rome and praetor peregrinus when outside of Rome.
监察官Censor
高阶级的职位，只交托给曾担任过执政官的人，其监察职责包括跟人口和税赋管理有关的金融与会计。An office of high rank, entrusted only to men who had previously served as consuls, the censorship encompassed financial and accounting responsibilities related to taxation and population management.
财务官Quaestor
财务官从事财政部门的服务。The quaestor served in the ministry of finance.
营造官Aedile
营造官负责本地的治安守卫、公共市场的监督、剧院表演的制作，和神殿的照料与维修。The curial aedile was responsible for local police protection, the oversight of public markets, the production of theatrical performances, and for the care and upkeep of the temples.
行政官
Magistrate
‘行政官’的头衔通常指服务一年以上，从执政官到财务官的公共官员。行政官职通常被认为是进入元老院的必要先决条件。The title of "magistrate" referred generally to any public official, who served on an annual basis, from the consul all the way down to the position of quaestor. The magistracy was usually considered a necessary precondition for entry into the Roman Senate.
罗马社会的阶级制度
Classifications of Roman Society
元老院Senatus
罗马的立法组织，由社会中的最高阶层份子组成，其职责有通过法令、选出执政官，并且监督公共管理的营运。通常元老院的人数上限为300名，但在不同的时期，独裁官可采用个人的拥护者，将人数增加至600名。The legislative body, composed of the highest ranking members of Roman society, passed laws, elected consuls, and oversaw the operations of public administration. Usually the Senate was limited to 300 members, but at various times, dictators were able to swell the numbers up to 600 with their personal supporters.
氏族
Tribus
为了税赋与公共管理的目的，罗马民众依居住地区分为世袭的氏族；城市内分成4个氏族，在城市外围地区则分成17个。The Roman populace was divided, for the purpose of taxation and public administration, into hereditary tribus or tribes according to residential district, 4 tribes being drawn from locations within the city, 17 from the outlying areas.
百人大会
Comitia Centuriata
百人大会原针对军事目的，在不同的五个阶级中，将罗马民众组织成百名战士一队（称做百人队）的团体，总数为193队：18队百人骑兵队、80队重装步兵团、90队轻装步兵团、4队工匠跟乐师、和1队无产民兵团。当半数47到60岁男性组成的百人队在后方防守城市时，另一半由46岁以下男性组成的百人队则在外地战斗。The Assembly of the Centuries organized the Roman populace for military purposes into groups of 100 fighting-men (called "centuriae") in each of 5 different categories (called "classes") for a total of 193 centuries altogether: 18 equestrian centuries, 80 heavy infantry, 90 light infantry, 4 artisans and musicians, and 1 of unpropertied soldiers. Half of the centuries consisted of men up to the age of 46 who fought in the field while the other half was composed of men between 47 and 60 who remained behind to defend the City.
贵族Patrician
旧时的罗马世家，大部分是那些祖先在过去曾经担任过执政官身份的人。元老院中的成员最后多半成为贵族。The established nobility consisted of a select number of old Roman families, most of whose ancestors had held consular authority in former times. The majority of Senators continued to be Patricians.
公民Plebeian
任何非贵族阶级的成员，包括许多新近成为贵族、富人、具影响力的人，都被视为平民。Anyone who was not a member of the Patrician class, including many of the recent nobility, the wealthy and the influential, was considered to be a commoner.
自由民Freeman
任何解除奴隶身份、可获准参与公众生活的个人或家庭。Any person who had been freed from slavery or whose family had been freed from slavery was permitted to participate in public life.
