问答题1
First Essay Question

3至5页
3-5 pages

请回答下列两问题中的任意一个：
Please answer one of the following two questions.

1. 本课中我们通过学习Donald Worster所著的《自然经济体系：生态观念历史》来探讨诸如兰纳、梭罗和达尔文等欧美学者的观点。这些学者和智士将他们对自然的想法置入广泛的社会和历史环境中进行思考，请比较这些观点的异同。你也可以探讨：这些学者如何给自然下定义？在他们的观点中，人类与自然或其他生物的联系如何？人类和自然又与上帝、与科学有何种关系？他们所处的社会环境发生了怎样的变化，能促使他们去思考这些术语？反之，他们的思考又对其他人产生了何种影响？
   In this class, we have used the book Nature's Economy by Donald Worster to discuss the ideas of European and American thinkers such as Linneaus, Thoreau and Darwin. Compare and contrast the ideas about nature offered by these scholars/intellectuals locating them in their broader social and historical context. You might want to explore such questions as: How did these thinkers conceptualize nature? In their views, what was the position of humans in relation to nature/other living creatures? What were the relationships of both humans and nature to God? To science? What changes were occurring in their broader social worlds that encouraged them to think in these terms and what influence, in turn, did their ideas have upon others?
   
   
2. 在《这片土地上的变化：印第安人，殖民地居民，暨新英格兰地区生态学》一书中，作者William Cronon探究了生活在早期新英格兰的美洲土著居民与英国殖民者对于土地和生物截然不同的观念和利用方式。请探讨这些区别。这些人群以怎样不同的方式利用自然环境，为什么他们的方式有如此显著的不同？更确切的说，他们如何定义土地和动物，又如何利用它们？他们如何理解财产，这种理解又有何含意？殖民者在新英格兰统治地位的日益稳固，对当地土著以及新英格兰地区的生态学又产生了怎样的影响？
   In his book, Changes in the Land, William Cronon has explored the very different conceptions of, and uses of, the land/living creatures between Native Americans and English settlers in early New England. Explore these differences. How and why did these groups utilize their natural environments in such different ways? More specifically, how did they conceptualize and make use of land? Of animals? How did they conceive of property and what implications did this have? As settlers became increasingly dominant in New England, what effect did the transformations that settlers brought with them have upon both Native Americans and upon the ecology of New England?

请确保你的论文观点陈述清晰，论证详细准确。
Make sure your essays have clear thesis statements and specific examples to illustrate your points.

问答题II
Second Essay Question 

5至7页
5-7 pages

1968年，Garett Hardin在他深具影响力的文章〈公用地的悲剧〉中提出接近自然资源的“公用地” 环境将不可避免地遭到破坏。因为对于个别人来说，过度开发这些资源正是他们谋求私利的最佳手段。Hardin集中探讨了行动个体以及应对各种情况的可行方案，但他却忽视了建立在社会基础上的思想和实践对于“公共”自然资源使用的影响。在课程阅读的基础上思考这种社会动力学因素（你可以参考Cronon、 Agrawal、Walley、Hecht和Cockburn等人的观点）。阅读中你发现了哪些有关公共资源的观点？这些观点与“资本主义”社会中私有财产的观念有何不同？自然资源“所有权”的构想与实践对各种社会形态的社会阶级或阶层有何影响？换言之，在各种自然资源的使用和占有的体制中，究竟谁在获利，谁又失利？随着时间推移，不同社会形态中动力学因素的转变在阅读材料中如何体现？这些对于使用和“占有”的不同观念与环境有何牵连？在阅读材料的基础上回答你是否赞同Hardin的推断，说明理由。
Garett Hardin in his influential 1968 article "The Tragedy of the Commons" theorized that a "commons" approach to natural resources inevitably leads to environmental degradation since it is in the best interest of individuals to overexploit such resources in pursuing their own advantage. Although Hardin focuses on individual actors and upon the possible action of states, he fails to explore societally-based ideas and practices that also affect "communal" natural resource use. Based on the readings from this class (you may utilize, for example, Cronon, Agrawal, Walley and Hecht and Cockburn) consider such social dynamics. What are the range of ideas about communal resources found in the readings? How do such ideas compare with ideas of private property commonly found in "capitalist" societies? How do ideas and practices of "ownership" over natural resources affect the degree of social stratification or hierarchy found within particular societies? In other words, who benefits or loses from various systems of natural resource use and ownership? According to the readings, how have such dynamics shifted over time within particular societies? What are the environmental implications of these differing conceptions of use and "ownership"? Based on the readings, do you agree or disagree with Hardin's assessment? Why or why not?

期末问答题
Final Essay Question

写两篇各4-5页长度的论文。
Write two essays of 4-5 pages each in length.

请在下列三个问题中任选两个作答：
Answer two of the following three choices.

1. 环境挣扎亦可反映出人类的科技形态。从该角度出发，思考Adriana Petryna笔下（《暴露下的生活：切尔诺贝利核电厂灾变事件后的生物实验公民》）1986年切尔诺贝利核电站事故的后果。Petryna认为这起核事故对乌克兰居民产生了什么影响？思考如下问题：居民的身份在事故之后是如变更的？为定位事故影响，国家制订了哪些政策？这些政策究竟是何动机，又产生了怎样的影响？科学在事故影响的断定中扮演着怎样的角色？什么样的社会经济学因素和政治因素在起作用？而乌克兰居民对于事故的描述又是受到何种外力的影响？Petryna使用“生物身份”这一术语，又有何种含义？
   Environmental struggles can also emerge over forms of science and technology created by humans. Consider the aftermath of the 1986 Chernobyl accident, described by Adriana Petryna in Life Exposed: Biological Citizens after Chernobyl, in such terms. According to Petryna, what was the impact of this nuclear accident on residents of the Ukraine? Consider questions such as the following: How were the identities of residents re-worked in subsequent years? What kinds of state policies were created to address the impact of the accident? What was the motivation for such policies and their impact? What role did science play in arbitrating the effects of the accident? What were the larger socioeconomic and political factors at work and what impact did these forces have upon how Ukranian residents interpreted the accident? What does the term biological citizenship mean for Petryna?
   
   
2. 环境保护论的话题既是学术资源，也是一个政治辩护的动机。虽然课程选择的大部分书籍具有理论倾向，一些材料则是从更加实际的角度出发，明确地谋求社会改变和环境改变。通过讨论《下游生活》和《蓝色的乙烯基》，思考“辩护”在有关环境的著作中扮演的角色。在论述有害污染物和人类健康联系的论据中，你认为哪些最具或最欠说服力？详细例证。有关环境的著作中，你大体上觉得哪些论据最具说服力？如果你打算动手写书或拍摄电影，你会使用哪些策略鼓励别人改进环境？你认为理由成立最重要的因素是什么？科学的资料、生动的叙述、平实的风格、详细的数据或是其他？为什么？（你也可以参考其他相关资料。）
   The topic of environmentalism is both a source of scholarly interest and a cause of political advocacy. Although most of the books for this class have been academic in orientation, some of the materials have taken more activist positions that explicitly seek to generate social and environmental change. Consider the role of advocacy in work about the environment through a discussion of Living Downstream and Blue Vinyl. In these accounts, what kinds of arguments did you find most or least persuasive regarding the linkages between toxic pollutants and health? Give detailed examples. In general, what kinds of arguments do you find persuasive in work about the environment? If you were planning to write a book or make a film intended to create environmental change, what kinds of strategies would you use to motivate others? What would you consider most important in creating such an account - scientific information, an engaging narrative, accessibility, particular kinds of data or something else? Why? (You may mention other materials for the class here if you find it relevant.)
   
   
3. 分析与你有关的环境挣扎。思考这种环境冲突与何相关？这种挣扎冲突发生在哪里？涉及哪些人或团体？他们各自有何风险？环境又面临哪些危机？确保内容详尽，并参考至少两本课程涉及的资料，以帮助你从理论上理解材料。
   Choose an environmental struggle of your own to analyze. Consider what the environmental conflict is about. Where does the struggle take place? Who are the various parties involved? What is at stake for each of these groups? What is at stake in environmental terms? Make sure that you have lots of specifics and reference at least two of the readings from over the course of the class as a way to help you theoretically approach this material.